has shown that oral administration of γ-EV can reduce the expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in the serum and small intestine of sepsis-induced mice by LPS, exhibiting anti-septic systemic inflammatory activity (22) Zhang and colleagues have also discovered that supplementation with γ-EV can alleviate intestinal inflammation in a porcine model of colitis (51). Here, TNF is linked to colitis.