CXCL10 and Japanese encephalitis: In Japanese encephalitis, for example, IP-10 promoted BBB damage by inducing TNF-α production through the JNK-c-Jun signaling pathway; in turn, TNF-α affected the expression and distribution of tight junctions in brain microvascular endothelial cells resulting in BBB damage.44 However, in our study, TNF-α levels were below the lower limit of quantification in 95% of all tested samples.