INS and type 1 diabetes mellitus: T1DM is anautoimmune condition that results in the loss of pancreatic βcells and a corresponding loss of insulin secretion, leading to afailure or regulated glucose uptake and high systemic glucose levels.T1DM can be managed by insulin injection, but immunotherapy and cellreplacement approaches are also under investigation for their potentialto attenuate or reverse β cell losses and preserve or restoreglucose control.