TNF and rosacea: TLR2 increases the expression of pro-IL-1β, while LL-37 enhances the processing of pro-IL-1β by the inflammasome.23,24 The enhanced activity of IL-1β results in upregulation of other pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-8 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, angiogenesis, and chemotaxis of neutrophils.23 This provides an explanation for the enhanced vascularization and inflammation observed in the skin of rosacea patients.