TNF and acute kidney injury: For example, in a study by Lv et al., purified TEC EVs rich in miRNA-19b-3p from an in vitro LPS-induced AKI model were applied to macrophages, which resulted in the upregulation of proteins such as p65, P-p65, and inflammatory cytokines such as MCP-1, IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α [106].