TNF and gastric ulcer: As illustrated in Figure 9A–C, compared with the control group, the expression levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the gastric tissues of rats in the model group were significantly higher (p < 0.01), suggesting that the increased levels of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) were associated with gastric ulcers.