TNF and neoplasm: In accordance with the role of MS to promote M1 polarization, Gao and collaborators demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor–related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) plays an important role in re-educating macrophages towards an antitumor phenotype by inducing the activation of NF-κB as well as the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α that in turn promote a cytotoxic effect in the tumor cells [59].