VCAM1 and inflammatory response: In ECs, TGF-β signalling is a major contributor to atherosclerosis-related vascular inflammation: TGF-β induces the expression of proinflammatory chemokines, cytokines (including C-C motif chemokine ligand-1 (CCL2)), leucocyte adhesion molecules (vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1)), and matrix metalloproteinase -2 (MMP-2) [11].