Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF)-secreting allogeneic pancreatic tumour cell (GVAX) immunotherapy and ipilimumab did not improve overall survival, but clear biologic effects on peripheral and intratumoural immune cells were observed, such as increase in T cell activation markers, peripheral T helper and cytotoxic effector memory cells, and decrease in naïve cytotoxic T cells and increase in M1 macrophage content (245). This evidence concerns the gene CSF2 and Neoplasm of the pancreas.