Remarkably, elevated levels of both TNFα and PGE2-producing Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) have been documented in the substantia nigra of PD patients, suggesting that these inflammatory mediators might act in concert with TLR-activating pathological αSYN aggregates to drive microglial cell polarization toward a specific disease phenotype [27, 28]. Here, TNF is linked to Parkinson disease.