Furthermore, an independent study has observed that co-blockade of PD-1 and Tim-3 results in a decrease in the production of anti-atherogenic cytokines by PD1+ Tim-3+ CD8+ T cells and an increase in the production of TNF and IFN-γ, both of which contribute to the development and progression of atherosclerosis (279). Here, PDCD1 is linked to atherosclerosis.