TNF and COVID-19: At a false discovery rate (FDR) q value threshold of 0.10, GSEA reinforced a severe COVID-19 immune signature defined by broad activation of key pro-inflammatory innate immune pathways (e.g., TLR4, NF-κB, STAT, complement) and cell populations (neutrophils, macrophages, dendritic cells), in addition to increased production of IL-6, IL-8, and TNF superfamily mediators (Fig. 2a).