Studies have demonstrated the neuroprotective effects of sodium butyrate in 5xFAD mice by inhibiting microglial activation and promoting synaptic plasticity (Fig. 3a).299,300 Moreover, probiotic and prebiotic interventions aimed at elevating SCFA levels have demonstrated neuroprotective effects in AD mouse models by inhibiting glial activation and Aβ deposition.301–306 Elevating butyrate through probiotic intervention (Clostridium butyricum) has been shown to inhibit microglial activation and reduce the levels of levels pro-inflammatory cytokines in APP/PS1 mice. Here, APP is linked to Alzheimer disease.