Accordingly, signals imposed by oncogenic pathways, such as fibroblast growth factor (FGF), phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)-AKT and transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) frequently contribute to CCA development and/or progression (Fouassier et al, 2019). The gene discussed is TGFB1; the disease is cholangiocarcinoma.