This analysis showed that the presence of UPP1high tumor cells was significantly positively associated with FOXP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), MMP11+ cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), LAG3 + PDCD1 + CD8+ exhausted T cells, and M2-like SPP1+ macrophages (Supplementary Fig. 6a–e). Here, PDCD1 is linked to cancer.