A substantial increase in apoptosis or apoptotic biomarkers (e.g. TNF, FAS, Bax, Bad, FAS/FASL and caspases-3/8) was commonly observed in leukocytes, alveolar cells and endothelial cells of lung tissue from severe P. falciparum malaria patients with pulmonary edema and experimental MA-ALI mice [35, 36]. This evidence concerns the gene TNF and edema.