LCN2 and infection: To determine if the three infection-associated biomarkers selected for this study (NGAL, IL-8, and IL-1β) [15, 28–32], are both sensitive and specific indicators for UTIs, their levels were measured in both Definitive UTI cases (symptomatic cases, diagnosed in a Urology/Urogynecology specialty setting, with uropathogens identified above threshold values by both SUC and M-PCR) and in Definitive non-UTI control cases (asymptomatic based on FDA-defined criteria included in a Symptom Score Analysis).