TNF and atherosclerosis: Whereas, the pro-inflammatory stimulators, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), increase PCSK9 expression in VSMCs and vascular endothelial cells in an inflammatory environment (Ding et al., 2020), leading to increased accumulation of lipoproteins in the artery wall and greatly promoting the onset of atherosclerosis.