Both scRNA-seq analysis and IF results identified increased M1 macrophage (iNOS, CD86, and TNF-α) with equivalent frequencies of M2 macrophages (Arg1, CD206, and CD163) at pulmonary parenchyma of IPF patients (Fig. 3I-J and S4B-C, E-F). Here, CD163 is linked to idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.