SMAD3 and echinococcosis: In addition, studies have shown that the NF- κB inflammatory signaling pathway (Tilioua et al., 2020; Lin et al., 2021) and the TGF-β1/Smad3 fibrosis signaling pathway (Wu et al., 2004; Banas et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2016; Tian et al., 2020) play a key role in regulating the immune-inflammation and fibrosis state of the host infected by Echinococcosis.