TGFB1 and brain cancer: As a prominent immune regulatory cytokine, TGF-β1 is widely studied in relation to its role in the pathogenesis and progression of various types of cancer, including colorectal cancer [9,10,11], hepatocellular carcinoma [12], brain cancer [13], etc. Both pro- and antitumor effects of TGF-β1 have been reported, supporting the dualistic role of this cytokine in carcinogenesis.