ERN1 and COVID-19: Liu et al. (2022) observed in whole-blood samples (containing multiple cell types) of COVID-19 patients that altered miRNAs, as an antiviral host response against SARS-CoV-2, were primarily linked to ER stress and UPR pathways’ regulation (including ATF6, IRE1 and PERK pathways), as well as to the generation of proinflammatory cytokines and immune responses [40].