TNF and infection: Notably, CHIKV-BP infection resulted in more than 100-fold increments (p < 0.05) in the expression of CSF2, IFN-α2/α4, IFN-β1, IFN-γ, IL-1α, IL-1RN, IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, and TNFsf-11 compared to the mock-infected group (Fig. 4B) It is known that the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNFα, IL-1β, IL-6 and INF-γ could increase BBB permeability.