TRIM32 and viral infectious disease: Additionally, TRIM proteins such as TRIM21, TRIM25, TRIM27, TRIM30, and TRIM32 operate downstream of IFNs and pathogen recognition receptors, regulating immune responses to both bacterial and viral infections by activating key transcription factors like IFN regulatory factors and nuclear factor KB (NFKB) (Fig. 1c) [13, 18–20].