TNF and pulmonary edema: Other studies have also shown that significantly higher levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-13, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) are observed in patients with pulmonary edema than in those without pulmonary edema.[11–13] In addition, cardiogenic toxicity is caused by the massive release of catecholamine (or catecholamine storm) resulting from brainstem inflammation.