TNF and ductal breast carcinoma in situ: Downregulated genes in DCIS include TM4SF1, NFKB1A, PBEF, RASD1, TNFRSF10B, TNFAIP, CLU, NSEP1, LITAF/PIG7, BZW1, and CCNL1, as well as genes encoding several cytokines and chemokines such as ILF2, IL13RA1, LIF, CLC, CCL2, and CXCL1. Some transcripts are frequently overexpressed in the DCIS such as PKD1-like, STARD10, EPS8L2, and KIAA0545. Some of these genes are associated with nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NFκB) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) pathways, resulting in impaired apoptosis and sustained proliferation of breast cancer cells (93).