VCAM1 and epilepsy: Systemic leukocytes infiltrate the brain from the blood stream through VCAM-1 (Vascular Adhesion Molecule 1) and ICAM-1 (Intercellular Adhesion Molecule 1) adhesion molecules, trans-endothelial diapedesis, and blood–brain barrier disruption promoting epilepsy- associated neuroinflammation (Fig. 8) [8, 20].