Because Vpr present in blood was active in inducing retrotransposition [44], and it has been reported that Vpr activates the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) [37,46], it is plausible that Vpr itself and/or inflammatory cytokines cooperatively function as cancer risks in PLWH [47]. Here, TNF is linked to cancer.