Estrogen depletion, inflammatory responses, and immune dysregulation [including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β)] in conjunction with disturbances in calcium ion homeostasis can independently or synergistically trigger apoptotic, autophagic, and necroptotic processes in bone cells, culminating in the onset of osteoporosis (Wang et al., 2023b; Cui et al., 2023; Feng et al., 2023; Jeong et al., 2023; Puts et al., 2023; Xiao et al., 2023; Zhu et al., 2023). Here, TNF is linked to osteoporosis.