TGFB1 and prostate cancer: This finding is remarkable given previous studies on the association between TGF-β signaling and racial disparities in prostate cancer.45,46 These studies suggest that higher TGF-β signaling may be associated with more aggressive prostate cancer in Black patients.38,39 In early breast cancer, we observed higher levels of expression of the TGF-β signature among Black patients that were associated with lower pCR and DRFS rates, where no association existed for Asian and White patients.