Moreover, triptolide inhibits DSS-induced colitis in vitro and in vivo, as shown by the downregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines after drug application; in-depth mechanistic studies have revealed that triptolide significantly inhibits the phosphorylation of AKT and p65, as well as macrophage M1 polarization both in vitro and in vivo, by inhibiting PDEAB and thus regulating the PDE4B/AKT/NF-κB axis in macrophages [29]. Here, AKT1 is linked to colitis.