PTAFR and influenza: Inflammatory response to influenza, parainfluenza, and RSV infection caused epithelial injury resulting in increased expression of cell surface receptors such as platelet-activating factor receptor (PAFr), intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), which serves as bacterial receptors (Ishizuka et al., 2003; McCullers and Bartmess, 2003b; Avadhanula et al., 2006).