VEGFA and endothelial dysfunction: Increased levels of inflammation and immune response lead to the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), which can exacerbate endothelial dysfunction, leukocyte infiltration, and retinal neovascularization in DR [14,15].