CSF2 and neoplasm: Inhibiting TGF-β signaling in T cells has been demonstrated to enhance their capacity to infiltrate tumor tissue, proliferate, and exert anti-tumor responses in prostate cancer models.212 Another strategy involves the intratumoral delivery of immunomodulatory cytokines, such as IL-2, IL-12, and GM-CSF, to promote anti-tumor immune responses.215–217 However, maintaining the correct balance of cytokines within the TME to prevent inducing harmful inflammatory responses is challenging.