Other mechanisms of DPP-4i action on the kidneys include their effect on the atrial and brain-derived natriuretic peptide (ANP and BNP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), peptide YY (PYY), stromal-cell-derived factor-1-α, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis, as illustrated in rat models of type 1 diabetes, T2DM, and hypertension [53]. Here, NPY is linked to type 2 diabetes mellitus.