TNF and ischemia: Immunohistochemical staining of HMGB1, IL-6 and TNF-α showed that HMGB1, IL-6 and TNF-α were released from the nucleus and localized in the cytoplasm and interstitial space in the ischemia–reperfusion group, which fully demonstrated that ischemia–reperfusion disrupted the structural integrity of the cell membrane, cell swelling, increased membrane permeability, nuclear disintegration, and cell necrosis.