Corroborating this inference, we screened the expression of three ATP hydrolases, including nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase1 (NTPDase1, CD39), V-ATPase, and Na/K-ATPase, in CD4+ T cells, and found that CD39 was selectively upregulated in NSCLC-interacted T cells, which lasted for 72 h after removal from the NSCLC-T co-culture (Fig. 3B, S5A), indicating that CD39 was most likely the key player for NSCLC cells to modulate CD4+ T cell immune metabolism and differentiation. Here, CD4 is linked to non-small cell lung carcinoma.