TNF and immune system toxicity: Previous study 34 suggested that monophosphate modified nanoparticles could result in low level of immunotoxicity and coordinate a mild inflammatory response in macrophages, as they are recognized by TLR receptors in immune cells, activate the NF-κB pathway, and induce pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and TNF-α, ultimately leading to multiple cellular inflammatory responses including cytokine secretion.