With the rationale of disrupting the immune-suppressive TME of HCC and converting it into a virus-inflamed immune infiltrated TME, we tested VSV-IFNß gene as an oncolytic and immunotherapeutic agent15, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 34 in a clinical trial [NCT01628640] in which VSV-IFNß was administered to patients with sorafenib-refractory HCC. This evidence concerns the gene IFNA1 and hepatocellular carcinoma.