The results of cell2location, NovoSpaRc, Tangram and DestVI reported T cells in almost all spots (Fig. 5a), inconsistent with the nature of PDAC as cold tumors; Meanwhile, Redeconve and CARD clearly suggested the sparsity of tumor-infiltrating T cells in pancreatic cancer, consistent with the spatial distribution of T cell-related genes (CD3, IL32 and TMSB4X, Fig. 5a, Supplementary Figs. 25–27). Here, IL32 is linked to neoplasm.