INS and Insulin resistance: Chromium supplementation can activate post-receptor insulin signaling, such as increasing the expression of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS1) and glucose transporter 4 (Glut 4), stimulating phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3-k) and protein kinase B (Akt) activity, downregulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) activity, and decreasing IRS1 ubiquitylation and insulin resistance-associated IRS1 phosphorylation, thereby improving insulin resistance.