IL4 and bacterial infectious disease: A significant increase in the production of crucial proinflammatory cytokines, including IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and IL-17A, was also observed in iOMV-treated splenocytes, suggesting that the vesicles elicit a robust immune response that is essential in protecting against bacterial infection (20) and that the responses of Th1 and Th17 are critical for the clearance of bacterial pathogens (36).