JUN and inflammatory bowel disease: Sakai et al. reported that astaxanthin could block the DSS-induced translocation of RELA and JUN into the nucleus of mucosal epithelial cells, while inhibiting the activation of MAPKs in mucosal cells, thereby significantly reducing the mRNA expression levels of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and exerting a mitigating effect on inflammatory bowel disease [111].