AR and prostate cancer: For instance, activation of β-catenin and loss of Pten have been demonstrated to act together to drive AR-independent castration-resistant prostate cancer (Patel et al. 2020), and testosterone is reported to downregulate the proliferation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells by inducing arrest at the G1 phase of the cell cycle in an AR-independent manner (Gaba et al. 2018).