PDCD1 and neoplasm: Additionally, there are significant differences in the expression levels of PD‐L1 and CD47 on tumour cells with different malignancy and NVs internalised into cells after anchoring to ligands on the surface of target high malignance cells by high‐affinity PD‐1 and SIRPα proteins, suggesting that these fusion HAC NVs were potential for targeted drug delivery application (Bian et al., 2022; Li et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2018).