TNF and colitis: Our data showed that the upregulation of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-12a, IL-17a, IFN-γ, TNF-α and GM-CSF) in the serum and colon tissues of DSS-treated mice were reduced by Fp-EV administration, while Fp-EVs could enhance the downregulated expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-β), which further verified the protective effect of Fp-EVs on colitis in mice.