TNF and malaria: Tfh cell activation during malaria is skewed towards Th1-Tfh cell responses111–113, and consistent with this, Th2 and Tfh cells subsets upregulated both the Th1 associated cytokine TNF, and ETS1 which represses Th2-Tfh subset differentiation in both human and mouse models of systemic lupus erythematosus114.