However, Yasui et al. observed opposing results: when comparing rectal cancer patients who received nCRT (50.4–66 Gy) to patients who did not, TGF-ß was found upregulated (TGFB3) and immuno-fluorescent staining for TGF-β1 revealed that it was derived by cancer cells following nCRT [67]. This evidence concerns the gene TGFB1 and rectal cancer.