TNF and nasopharyngeal carcinoma: Besides that, hyperactivation of cellular signalling pathways such as prosurvival pathways, PI3K/Akt, NF-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) 3, Wingless-related integration site (Wnt)/β-catenin] and abnormal negative regulation of proapoptopsis pathways (p53, endoplasmic reticulum stress), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signalling pathway are associated with NPC pathogenesis [116] (Table 4).