For instance, high glycated hemoglobin A1c concentrations are associated with a progressive decline in cognitive function, particularly in memory and executive function.[100] However, it is worth noting that insulin, while effective for glycemic control, has been associated with diabetes-induced neurocognitive decline.[101] Intranasal insulin therapy shows promise in improving memory function.[101] Although intensive glycemic control has been linked to reduced brain atrophy, no conclusive evidence supports its superiority over standard control.[102]. Here, INS is linked to Brain atrophy.